From OSR

There is a nice basic overview of propulsion systems here.

You can spend lots of time researching spacecraft propulsion systems. But you are in luck, I've got some data for you. Most of this is from Philip Eklund's soon-to-be-released invaluable boardgame HIGH TRADER, the impressive Spaceship Handbook, and the indispensable [rocket3j.html#spad Space Propulsion Analysis and Design]. The rest is from various places I found around the internet, and no, I didn't keep track of where I got them. Use at your own risk.

Jump to the [#table Drive Table].

If you don't like the values in the table, do some research to see if you can discover values you like better. Also note that the designs in the list are probably optimized for high exhaust velocities at the expense of thrust. There is a chance that some can be altered to give enough thrust for lift-off at the expense of exhaust velocity. Or you can just give up and go beg [rocket3Notes.html#tycobass Mr. Tyco Bass] for some atomic tri-tetramethylbenzacarbonethylene. Four drops should do the trick.

Some engines require electricity in order to operate. These have their megawatt requirements listed under "Power Requirements". With these engines, the Engine Mass value includes the mass of the power plant (unless the value includes "+pp", which means the mass value does NOT include the mass of the power plant). The power plant mass can be omitted if the spacecraft relies on beamed power from a remote power station. Alas, I could find no figures on the mass of the power plant. If the plant is nuclear, it probably has a mass of around 0.5 to 10 tons per megawatt. I agree, that isn't much help. Sorry. Efficiency is the percentage of the power requirements megawatts that are actually turned into thrust. The rest becomes waste heat and has to be removed with heat radiators.

T/W >1.0 = Thrust to Weight ratio greater than zero? This boils down to: can this engine be used to take off from the [rocket3Notes.html#terra Terra's] surface? If the answer is "no" use it only for orbit to orbit maneuvers. It is calculated by figuring if the given thrust can accelerate the engine mass greater than one gee of acceleration. As a rule of thumb, a practical spacecraft capable of lifting off from the Earth's surface will require a T/W of about 50 to 75.

Most propulsion systems fall into two categories: SUV and economy. SUV propulsion is like an SUV automobile: big and muscular, but the blasted thing gets a pathetic three miles to the gallon. Economy propulsion has fantastic fuel economy, but has trouble climbing low hills. In the world of rockets, good fuel economy means a high "specific impulse" (I_sp) and high exhaust velocity. And muscle means a high thrust.

The only vaguely possible propulsion system that has both high exhaust velocity and high thrust is the Nuclear Salt Water Rocket, and not a few scientist have questions about its feasibility. Well, actually there is also Project Orion, but that has other problems (see below). In science fiction, one often encounters the legendary "fusion drive" or [rocket3i.html "torchship"] , which is a high exhaust velocity + high thrust propulsion system that modern science isn't sure is even possible.

From my limited understanding, the basic problem is how to keep the engine from vaporizing.

F_p = (F * V_e ) / 2

where
F_p = thrust power (watts)
F = thrust (newtons)
V_e = exhaust velocity (m/s)

The problem is that at high enough values for exhaust velocity and thrust, the amount of watts in the jet is too much. "Too much" is defined as: if only a fractional percentage of those watts are lost as waste heat, the spacecraft glows blue-white and evaporates. The size of the dangerous fractional percent depends on heat protection technology. There is a limit to how much heat that current technology can deal with, without a technological break-through.

Jerry Pournelle says (in his classic A STEP FARTHER OUT) that an exhaust velocity of 28,800,000 cm/s corresponds to a temperature of 5 million Kelvin.

As an exceedingly rough approximation:

A_e = (0.5 * A_m * A_v²) / B

where
A_e = particle energy (Kelvin)
A_m = mass of particle (g) (1.6733e-24 grams for monatomic hydrogen)
A_v = exhaust velocity (cm/s)
B = Boltzmann's constant: 1.38e-16 (erg K^-1)
(note that the above equation is using centimeters per second, not meters per second)

where
 Qe = engine reaction chamber temperature (Kelvin)
 Ve = exhaust velocity (m/s)
 Z = heat-pressure factor, varies by engine design, roughly from 1.4 to 2.4 or so.
 Pw = mean molecular weight of propellant, 1 for atomic hydrogen, 2 for molecular hydrogen

<center>Magnetic Nozzle from NASA report TM-2005-213559. Fusion spacecraft design by Craig H. Williams, Leonard A. Dudzinski, Stanley K. Borowski, and Albert J. Juhasz of the Glenn Research Center</center>

Larry Niven postulates something like this in his "Known Space" series, the crystal-zinc tube makes a science-fictional force field which reflects all energy. Niven does not explore the implications of this. However, Niven and Pournelle do explore the implications in THE MOTE IN GOD'S EYE. The Langson Field is used in the ship's drive, and as a force screen defense. The Langson field absorbs energy, and can re-radiate it. As a defense it sucks up hostile laser beams and nuclear detonations. As a drive, it sucks up and contains the energy of a fusion reaction, and re-radiates the energy as the equivalent of a photon drive exhaust.

(And please remember the difference between "temperature" and "heat". A spark from the fire has a much higher temperature than a pot of boiling water, yet a spark won't hurt your hand at all while the boiling water can give you second degree burns. The spark has less heat, which in this context is the thrust power in watts.)

If one has no science-fictional force fields, as a rule of thumb the maximum heat load allowed on the drive assembly is around 5 MW/m². This is the theoretical ultimate, for an actual propulsion system it will probably be quite a bit less. For a back of the envelope calculation:

R_c = 0.12 * sqrt[H]

where
R_c = reaction chamber radius (meters)
H = reaction chamber waste heat (megawatts)
(this equation courtesy of Anthony Jackson)

Example: Say your propulsion system has an exhaust velocity of 5.4e6 m/s and a thrust of 2.5e6 N. Now F_p=(F*V_e)/2 so the thrust power is 6.7e12 W. So, 6.7e12 watts divided by 1.0e6 watts per megawatt gives us 6.7e6 megawatts. Plugging this into the equation results in 0.12 * sqrt[6.7e6 MW] = drive chamber radius of 310 meters or a diameter of a third of a mile. Ouch.

As a first approximation, for most propulsion systems one can get away with using the thrust power for H. Science-fictional technologies can cut the value of H to a percentage of thrust power by somehow preventing the waste heat from getting to the chamber walls.

Only use this equation if H is above 4,000 MW or so, and if the propulsion system is a thermal type (i.e., fission, fusion, or antimatter).

An alternative is an exhaust nozzle formed from a magnetic field. The metal framework lets the heat escape instead of vaporizing the nozzle. The magnetic field cannot be vaporized since it is composed of energy instead of matter.

And don't forget the [rocket3x.html#kzintilesson Kzinti Lesson]

Gordon Woodcock:

Calculating the performance of a spaceship can be complicated. But if the ship is powerful enough, we can ignore gravity fields. It is then fairly easy. The ship will accelerate to a maximum speed and then turn around and slow down at its destination. Fusion or annihilation-drive ships will probably do this. They will apply power all the time, speeding up and slowing down. (ed note: a [rocket3i.html#brachistochrone "brachistochrone"] trajectory)

In this simple case, all the important performance parameters can be expressed on a single graph. This one is drawn for the case when 90% of the starting mass is propellant. (ed note: a mass ratio of 10) Jet velocity (exhaust velocity) and starting acceleration are the graph scales. Distance for several bodies are shown. Mars varies greatly; I used 150 million kilometers. Trip times and specific power levels are also shown. "Specific power" expresses how much power the ship generates for each kilogram of its mass, that is, its total power divided by its mass. The propellant the ship will carry is not included in the mass value.

An example: Suppose your ship can produce 100 kW/kg of jet power. You wish to fly to Jupiter. Where the 100 kW/kg and Jupiter lines cross on the graph, read a jet velocity of 300,000 m/s (Isp = 30,000) and an initial acceleration of nearly 0.01g. Your trip will take about two months.

The upper area of the graph shows that high performance is needed to reach the nearest stars. Even generation ships will need, in addition to very high jet velocities, power on the order of 100 kW/kg. The space shuttle orbiter produces about 100 kW/kg with its three engines. The high power needed for starflight precludes its attainment with means such as electric propulsion.

There are dozens of so-called "plasma drives" currently on the drawing board. Dr. John Schilling ranks them in order of decreasing reality:

• Hall Effect Thrusters (HET) (hundred-plus flown)
• Arcjets (dozens flown)
• Ion thrusters (dozens flown)
• Pulsed Plasma Thrusters (PPT) (a few flown)
• Magnetoplasmadynamic thrusters (MPD) (many ground tests)
• Microwave electrothermal thrusters (some ground tests)
• Field Emission Electrostatic Propulsion (some ground tests)
• Pulsed Inductive Thrusters (PIT) (few ground tests)
• VASIMR (none built, much analysis)
• M2P2 (none built, some analysis)

Dr. Schilling goes on to say that it's common to restrict the term, "plasma thruster", to predominantly electromagnetic devices - the MPD, HET, VASIMR, PPT, PIT, and maybe M2P2.

The Drive Table

All drives listed in the table whose names end in "MAX" require some sort of technological breakthrough to to prevent the engine from vaporizing and/or absurdly large reaction chamber sizes.

If these figures result in disappointing rocket performance, in the name of science fiction you can tweak some of them and claim it was due to a technological advance. You are allowed to tweak anything who's name does not end in "MAX". You can alter the Thrust, Engine Mass, and/or the Eff, but no other values. If there is a corresponding "MAX" entry for the engine you are tweaking, you cannot alter any of the values above the "MAX" entry (i.e., you are not allowed to tweak NTR-SOLID-DUMBO's thrust above 7,000,000, which is the value in the NTR-SOLID MAX entry).

The engines are sorted by thrust power, since that depends on both exhaust velocity and thrust. So engines that high in both of those parameters will be towards the end of the list. This is useful for designers trying to make spacecraft that can both blast-off from a planet's surface and do efficient orbital transfers.

If one was trying to design a more reasonable strictly orbit-to-orbit spacecraft one would want the engine list sorted by exhaust velocity. And surface-to-orbit designers would want the list sorted by thrust.

I have also created a graph of the data below. An Adobe Acrobat file of the graph can be found [RocketChart01Work.pdf here].

Aluminum-Oxygen chemical rocket: Aluminum and oxygen are burned resulting in an unremarkable specific impulse of about 285 seconds. However, this is of great interest to any future lunar colonies. Both aluminum and oxygen are readily available in the lunar regolith, and such a rocket could easily perform lunar liftoff, lunar landing, or departure from a hypothetical L5 colony for Terra (using a lunar swingby trajectory). The low specific impulse is more than made up for by the fact that the fuel does not have to be imported from Terra.

ACMF: ANTIPROTON-CATALYZED MICROFISSION / INERTIAL CONFINEMENT FISSION

AIM: ANTIPROTON-INITIATED MICROFUSION / INERTIAL CONFINEMENT FUSION

AM-Beam: ANTIMATTER BEAM CORE. Microscopic amounts of antimatter are reacted with equal amounts of matter. The charged pions from the reaction are used directly as thrust, instead of being used to heat a propellant. A magnetic nozzle channels them. Without a technological break-through, this is a very low thrust propulsion system. All antimatter rockets produce dangerous amounts of gamma rays. The gamma rays and the pions can transmute engine components into radioactive isotopes. The higher the mass of the element transmuted, the longer lived it is as a radioisotope.

AM-Gas: ANTIMATTER GAS CORE. Microscopic amounts of antimatter are injected into large amounts of water or hydrogen propellant. The intense reaction flashes the propellant into plasma, which exits through the exhaust nozzle. Magnetic fields constrain the charged pions from the reaction so they heat the propellant, but uncharged pions escape and do not contribute any heating. Less efficient than AM-Solid core, but can achieve a higher specific impulse. For complicated reasons, a spacecraft optimized to use an antimatter propulsion system need never to have a mass ratio greater than 4.9, and may be as low as 2. No matter what the required delta V, the spacecraft requires a maximum of 3.9 tons of reaction mass per ton of dry mass, and a variable amount of antimatter measured in micrograms to grams.

Well, actually this is not true if the delta V required approaches the speed of light, but it works for normal interplanetary delta Vs

AM-Plasma: ANTIMATTER PLASMA CORE. Similar to AM-Gas, but more antimatter is used, raising the propellant temperature to levels that convert it into plasma. A magnetic bottle is required to contain the plasma.

AM-Solid: ANTIMATTER SOLID CORE. Basically a NERVA design where a tungsten target replaces the reactor. 13 micrograms per second of antiprotons are annihilated. The gamma rays and pions are captured in the tungsten target, heating it. The tungsten target in turn heats the hydrogen. Produces high thrust but the specific impulse is limited due to material constraints (translation: above a certain power level the blasted tungsten melts)

ArcJet: Hydrogen propellant is heated by an electrical arc.

AV:T Fusion: Fictional [#mcfusion magnetic bottle fusion drive] from the Attack Vector: Tactical wargame. It uses an as yet undiscovered principle to direct the heat from the fusion reaction out the exhaust instead of vaporizing the reaction chamber. Like the [#vasimr VASIMR] it has "gears", a combat mode and a cruise mode. The latter increases specific impulse (exhaust velocity) at the expense of thrust.

In the lower illustration, the spikes are solid-state graphite heat radiators, the cage the spikes emerge from is the magnetic bottle, the sphere is the crew quarters and the yellow rectangles are the retractable power reactor heat radiators. The ship in the lower left corner is signaling its surrender by [rocket3y.html#radiators deploying its radiators].

BEER: In The Makeshift Rocket, the old geezer cobbles together a crude rocket out of hogs-heads of pressurized beer in order to escape to an adjacent asteroid.

Chemical: Hydrogen-Oxygen. The same thing used on the Space Shuttle. There is a list of other chemical propellants here

Colloid Electrostatic: Similar to [#ion Ion], but utilizing tiny droplets instead of ions.

D-T Fusion: DEUTERIUM-TRITIUM FUSION. Fuel: deuterium and tritium. Propellant: lithium. 1 atom of Deuterium fuses with 1 atom of Tritium to produce 17.6 MeV of energy. One gigawatt of power requires burning a mere 0.00297 grams of D-T fuel per second.

Note that Tritium has an exceedingly short half-life of 12.32 years. Use it or lose it. Most designs using Tritium included a blanket of Lithium to breed more fresh Tritium fuel.

H-B Fusion: HYDROGEN-BORON FUSION: Fuel is Hydrogen and Boron-11. Propellant is hydrogen. Bombard Boron-11 atoms with Protons (i.e., ionized Hydrogen) and you get a whopping 16 Mev of energy, three Alpha particles, and no deadly neutron radiation.

Well, sort of. Current research indicatates that there may be some neutrons. Paul Dietz says there are two nasty side reactions. One makes a Carbon-12 atom and a gamma ray, the other makes a Nitrogen-14 atom and a neutron. The first side reaction is quite a bit less likely than the desired reaction, but gamma rays are harmful and quite penetrating. The second side reaction occurs with secondary alpha particles before they are thermalized.

The Hydrogen - Boron reaction is sometimes termed "thermonuclear fission" as opposed to the more common "thermonuclear fusion".

A pity about the low thrust. The fusion drives in Larry Niven's "Known Space" novels probably have performance similar to H-B Fusion, but with millions of newtons of thrust.

It sounded too good to be true, so I asked "What's the catch?" Dr. John Schilling said:

The catch is, you have to arrange for the protons to impact with 300 keV of energy, and even then the reaction cross section is fairly small. Shoot a 300 keV proton beam through a cloud of boron plasma, and most of the protons will just shoot right through. 300 keV proton beam against solid boron, and most will be stopped by successive collisions without reacting. Either way, you won't likely get enough energy from the few which fuse to pay for accelerating all the ones which didn't.

Now, a dense p-B plasma at a temperature of 300 keV is another matter. With everything bouncing around at about the right energy, sooner or later everything will fuse. But containing such a dense, hot plasma for any reasonable length of time, is well beyond the current state of the art. We're still working on 25 keV plasmas for D-T fusion.

If you could make it work with reasonable efficiency, you'd get on the order of ten gigawatt-hours of usable power per kilogram of fuel.

Professor N. Rostoker, et. al think they have the solution, utilizing colliding beams. Graduate Student Alex H.Y. Cheung is looking into turning this concept into a propulsion system.

He³-D Fusion: HELIUM 3-DEUTERIUM FUSION. Fuel is helium³ and deuterium. Propellant is hydrogen. 1 atom of Deuterium fuses with 1 atom of Helium-3 to produce 18.35 MeV of energy. One gigawatt of power requires burning a mere 0.00285 grams of 3He-D fuel per second.

[MagneticNozzle7.jpg ]

IBS Agamemnon: Interplanetary Boost Ship Agamemnon from Jerry Pournelle's short story "Tinker". This fictional ship is a species of [#ion Ion drive] utilizing cadmium and powered by deuterium fusion. Looking at its performance I suspect that in reality no Ion drive could have such a high thrust. The back of my envelope says that you'd need one thousand ultimate Ion drives to get this much thrust.

IC Fusion: INERTIAL CONFINEMENT FUSION. A pellet of fusion fuel is bombarded on all sides by strong pulses from laser or particle accelerators. The inertia of the fuel holds it together long enough for most of it to undergo fusion.

Ion: Potassium seeded argon is ionized and the ions are accelerated electrostatically by electrodes. Other propellants can be used, such as cesium and buckyballs. Though it has admirably high exhaust velocity, there are theoretical limits that ensure all Ion drives are low thrust. It also shares the same problem as the other electrically powered low-thrust drives. In the words of a NASA engineer the problem is "we can't make an extension cord long enough." That is, electrical power plants are weighty enough to make the low thrust an even larger liability.

If you are interested in the technical details about why ion drives are low thrust, read the next two paragraphs by Dr. John Schilling.

And it suffers from the same critical thrust-limiting problem as any other ion engine: since you are accelerating ions, the acceleration region is chock full of ions. Which means that it has a net space charge which repels any additional ions trying to get in until the ones already under acceleration manage to get out, thus choking the propellant flow through the thruster.

The upper limit on thrust is proportional to the cross-sectional area of the acceleration region and the square of the voltage gradient across the acceleration region, and even the most optimistic plausible values (i.e. voltage gradients just shy of causing vacuum arcs across the grids) do not allow for anything remotely resembling high thrust.

Erik Max Francis adds:

You can only increase particle energy so much; you then start to get vacuum arcing across the acceleration chamber due to the enormous potential difference involved. So you can't keep pumping up the voltage indefinitely.

To get higher thrust, you need to throw more particles into the mix. The more you do this, the more it will reduce the energy delivered to each particle.

It is a physical limit. Ion drives cannot have high thrusts.

J x B Electric: "Jay cross Bee". A crossed field plasma accelerator. It is a type of [#mpd Magnetoplasmadynamic] propulsion.

LANTR: LOX-AUGMENTED NUCLEAR THERMAL ROCKET. This concept involves the use of a "conventional" hydrogen (H₂) NTR with oxygen (O₂) injected into the nozzle. The injected O₂ acts like an "afterburner" and operates in a "reverse scramjet" mode. This makes it possible to augment (and vary) the thrust (from what would otherwise be a relatively small NTR engine) at the expense of reduced I_sp

Laser Thermal: Similar to [#solarmoth Solar Moth], but uses a stationary ground or space-station based laser instead of the sun. Basically the propulsion system leaves the power plant at home and relies upon a laser beam instead of an incredibly long extension cord.

Mass Driver: Buckets filled with packed rock dust are accelerated electromagnetically. Buckets are recovered for re-use. Propellant is rock dust or anything else you can stuff into the bucket. Popular with asteroid miners who want to nudge their claims into different orbits. Unpopular with the astromilitary of all nations, who think that civilization-destroying asteroid bombardment is not a power one wants to give to rock-rats. As a matter of fact, one can foresee a branch of "orbit guards" in each astromilitary, patrolling the solar system to prevent unauthorized changes in asteroid orbits.

MC Fusion: MAGNETIC CONFINEMENT FUSION. A magnetic bottle contains the fusion reaction. Very difficult to do. Researchers in this field say that containing fusion plasma in a magnetic bottle is like trying to support a large slab of gelatin with a web of rubber bands. Making a magnetic bottle which has a magnetic rocket exhaust nozzle is roughly 100 times more difficult.

Meta-helium He^*: SPIN-POLARIZED TRIPLET HELIUM. Three helium atoms are aligned in a metastable state. When it reverts to normal state it releases 0.48 gigjoules per kilogram. The trouble is that it tends to decay spontaneously, with a lifetime of a mere 2.3 hours.

Meta-helium He IV-A: DIATOMIC METASTABLE HELIUM. One normal and one excited helium atom are paired to form a stable solid.

The trick is to keep the touchy stuff from exploding prematurely and destroying the spacecraft. The fuel is stored in a resonant waveguide. This is another propulsion system that renders the spacecraft unusually vulnerable to weapons strikes.

Mini-MagOrion: This is a sort of micro-fission Orion propulsion system. The fuel and propellant are subcritical pellets of Curium-245. These are compressed electrodynamically by a Z-pinch magnetic field until they reach criticality and explode. The momentum from the explosion is transferred to the spacecraft by the magnetic field. The field coils are attached to a shock absorber Orion style. The detonations occur at a rate of 1 Hz.

MITEE: MInature ReacTor EnginE. MITEE is actually a family of engines. These are small designs, suitable for launching on existing boosters.

Basic MITEE: The baseline design is a fairly conventional NTR. Unlike earlier designs it keeps the fuel elements in individual pressure tubes instead of a single pressure vessel, making it lighter and allowing slightly higher temperatures and a bit better exhaust velocity.

Monatomic H MITEE: This advanced design works at a lower chamber pressure so that some of the H2 propellant disassociates into monatomic hydrogen, although the chamber temperature is only slightly greater. The drawback is that this reduces the mass flow through the reactor, limiting reactor power.

Hybrid Electro-Thermal MITEE: The use of individual pressure tubes in the reactor allows some fuel channels to be run at high pressure while others are run at a lower pressure, facilitating a hybrid electro-thermal design. In this design cold H2 is heated in the high pressure section of the reactor, is expanded through a turbine connected to a generator, then reheated in the low pressure section of the reactor before flowing to the nozzle. The electricity generated by the turbine is used to break down more H2 into monatomic hydrogen, increasing the exhaust velocity. Since this is a once through system there is no need for radiators so the weight penalty would not be excessive.

You can find more details here.

MPD: MAGNETOPLASMADYNAMIC. A travelling wave plasma accelerator. Propellant is potassium seeded helium.

NSWR: NUCLEAR SALT-WATER ROCKET. This concept by Dr. Zubrin is considered far-fetched by many scientists. The fuel is a 20% solution of Uranium tetrabromide in water. The fuel tanks are thin capillary tubes embedded in a neutron damper (like cadmium) to prevent a chain reaction. The fuel is injected into the reaction chamber to create a critical mass. It is basically a continuously detonating Orion type drive with water as propellant. The controversy is over how to contain such a reaction. Zubrin maintains that skillful injection of the fuel can force the reaction to occur outside the reaction chamber. Other scientists are skeptical. Naturally in such a spacecraft, damage to the fuel tanks can have unfortunate results (say, damage caused by hostile weapons fire). The advantage of NSWR is that this is the only known propulsion system that combines high exhaust velocity with high thrust. The disadvantage is that it combines many of the worst problems of the Orion and Gas Core systems. For starters, using it for take-offs will leave a large crater that will glow blue for several hundred million years, as will everything downwind in the fallout area.

NTR-GAS/Closed: CLOSED-CYCLE GASEOUS CORE FISSION / NUCLEAR THERMAL ROCKET AKA "Nuclear Lightbulb". Similar to a gas core fission rocket, but the uranium plasma is confined in a fused quartz chamber. The good news is that there is no uranium escaping in the exhaust. The bad news is that the exhaust velocity is halved.

NTR-GAS/Coaxial: GASEOUS CORE COAXIAL FLOW FISSION / NUCLEAR THERMAL ROCKET

NTR-GAS/Open: GASEOUS CORE FISSION / NUCLEAR THERMAL ROCKET AKA consumable nuclear rocket, plasma core, fizzler, cavity reactor rocket. The limit on NTR-SOLID exhaust velocities is the melting point of the reactor. Some engineer who obviously likes thinking "outside of the box" tried to make a liability into a virtue. They asked the question "what if the reactor was already molten?"

Gaseous uranium is injected into the reaction chamber until there is enough to start a furious chain reaction. Hydrogen is then injected into the center of this nuclear inferno where is flash heats and shoots out the exhaust nozzle.

The trouble is the uranium shoots out the exhaust as well.

The reaction is maintained in a vortex tailored to minimize loss of uranium out the nozzle. Fuel is uranium hexaflouride (U²³⁵F₆) , propellant is hydrogen. The loss of uranium in the exhaust reduces efficiency and angers environmentalists.

If used for lift off it can result in a dramatic decrease in the property values around the spaceport. Amusingly enough, this is the best match for the propulsion system used in the TOM CORBETT: SPACE CADET books. However the books are sufficiently vague that it is possible the Polaris used a nuclear lightbulb. According to technical advisor Willy Ley, "reactant" is the hydrogen propellant, but the books imply that reactant is the liquid uranium.

NTR-LIQUID: NUCLEAR THERMAL ROCKET / LIQUID CORE FISSION. Similar to an NTR-GAS, but the fissionable core is merely molten, not gaseous.

NTR-LIQUID/LARS: NUCLEAR THERMAL ROCKET / Liquid Annular Reactor System. A type of NTR-LIQUID. You can find more details here

NTR-SOLID: NUCLEAR THERMAL ROCKET / SOLID CORE FISSION. It's a real simple concept. Put a nuclear reactor on top of an exhaust nozzle. Instead of running water through the reactor and into a generator, run hydrogen through it and into the nozzle. By diverting the hydrogen to a turbine generator 60 megawatts can be generated. The reactor elements have to be durable, since erosion will contaminate the exhaust with fissionable materials. The exhaust velocity limit is fixed by the melting point of the reactor.

Hydrogen gives the best exhaust velocity, but the other propellants are given in the table since a spacecraft may be forced to re-fuel on whatever working fluids are available locally (what Jerry Pournelle calls "Wilderness re-fuelling", Robert Zubrin calls "In-situ Resource Utilization", and I call "the enlisted men get to go out and shovel whatever they can find into the propellant tanks"). For thermal drives in general, and NTR-SOLID in particular, the exhaust velocity imparted to a particular propellant by a given temperature is proportional to 1 / sqrt( molar mass of propellant chemical )

The value for "hydrogen" in the table is for molecular hydrogen, i.e., H2. Atomic hydrogen would be even better, but unfortunately it tends to explode at the clank of a falling dust speck (Heinlein calls atomic hydrogen "Single-H"). Another reason to avoid hydrogen is the difficulty of storing the blasted stuff, and its annoyingly low density (Ammonia is about eight times as dense!). Exhaust velocities are listed for a realistically attainable core temperature of 3200 degrees K for the propellants Hydrogen (H₂), Methane (CH₄), Ammonia (NH₃), Water (H₂O), Carbon Dioxide (CO₂), Carbon Monoxide (CO), and Nitrogen (N₂).

The exhaust velocities are larger than what one would expect given the molecular weight of the propellants because in the intense heat they break down into their components. Ammonia is nice because it breaks down into gases (Hydrogen and Nitrogen). Methane is nasty because it breaks down into Hydrogen and Carbon, the latter tends to clog the reactor with soot deposits. Water is most unhelpful since it doesn't break down much at all.

Dr. John Schilling figures that as an order of magnitude guess, about one day of full power operation would result in enough fuel burnup to require reprocessing of the fissionable fuel elements. (meaning that while there is still plenty of fissionables in the fuel rod, enough by-products have accumulated that the clogged rod produces less and less energy) A reprocessing plant could recover 55-95% of the fuel. With reprocessing, in the long term each totally consumed kilogram of plutonium or highly enriched uranium (HEU) will yield ~1E10 newton-seconds of impulse at a specific impulse of ~1000 seconds.

Dr. Schilling also warns that there is a minimum amount of fissionable material for a viable reactor. Figure a minimum of 50 kilograms of HEU.

One problem with solid-core NTRs is that if the propellant is corrosive, that is, if it is oxidizing or reducing, heating it up to three thousand degrees is just going to make it more reactive. Without a protective coating, the propellant will start corroding away the interior of the reactor, which will make for some real excitement when it starts dissolving the radioactive fuel rods. What's worse, a protective coating against an oxidizing chemical is worthless against a reducing chemical, which will put a crimp in your wilderness refueling. And trying to protect against both is an engineering nightmare. Oxidizing propellants include oxygen, water, and carbon dioxide, while reducing propellants include hydrogen, ammonia, and methane. Carbon Monoxide is neither, as the carbon atom has a death-grip on the oxygen atom.

Keep in mind that the oxidizing/reducing effect is only a problem with solid-core NTRs, not the other kinds. This is because only the solid-core NTRs have solid reactor elements exposed to the propellant (for heating).

A useful refinement is the Bimodal NTR.

Say your spacecraft has an honest-to-Johnny [#ntrsolidnerva NERVA] nuclear-thermal propulsion system. Typically it operates for a few minutes at a time, then sits idle for the rest of the entire mission. Before each use, one has to warm up the reactor, and after use the reactor has to be cooled down. Each of these thermal cycles puts stress on the engine. And the cooling process consists of wasting propellant, flushing it through the reactor just to cool it off instead of producing thrust.

Meanwhile, during the rest of the mission, your spacecraft needs electricity to run life support, radio, radar, computers, and other incidental things.

So make that reactor do double duty (that's where the "Bimodal" comes in) and kill two birds with one stone. Refer to above diagram. Basically you take a NERVA and attach a power generation unit to the side. The NERVA section is the "cryogenic H2 propellant tank", the turbopump, and the thermal propulsion unit. The power generation section is the generator, the radiator, the heat exchanger, and the compressor.

Warm up your reactor once, do a thrust burn, stop the propellant flow and use the heat exchanger and radiator to partially cool the reactor to power generation levels, and keep the reactor warm for the rest of the mission while generating electricity for the ship.

This allows you to get away with only one full warm/cool thermal cycle in the entire mission instead of one per burn. No propellant is wasted as coolant since the radiator cools down the reactor. The reactor supplies needed electricity. And as an added bonus, the reactor is in a constant pre-heated state. This means that in case of emergency one can power up and do a burn in a fraction of the time required by a cold reactor.

Pretty ingenious, eh?

And the Pratt & Whitney company went one step better. They took the Bimodal NTR concept and merged it with the [#lantr LANTR] concept to make a Trimodal NTR. Called the Triton, it can be used in LANTR mode when thrust is more important than specific impulse, NTR mode when specific impulse is more important than thrust, and in power generation mode while coasting.

NTR-SOLID/DUMBO: This was a competing design to NERVA. It was shelved political decision that, (in order to cut costs on the atomic rocket projects) required both projects to use an already designed NEVRA engine nozzle. Unfortunately, said nozzle was not compatible with the DUMBO active cooling needs.. Dumbo does, however, have a far superior mass flow to the NERVA, and thus a far superior thrust. Dumbo actually had a thrust to weight ratio greater than one. NASA still shelved DUMBO because [a] NERVA used off the shelf components and [b] they knew there was no way in heck that they could get permission for nuclear lift-off rocket so who cares if T/W < 0? You can read more about Dumbo in this document.

NTR-SOLID/NERVA: NUCLEAR ENGINE for ROCKET VEHICLE APPLICATIONS. The first type of NTR-SOLID propulsion systems. It used reactor fuel rods surrounded by a neutron reflector. Unfortunately its thrust to weight ratio is less than one, so no lift-offs with this rocket. The trouble was inadequate propellant mass flow, the result of trying to squeeze too much hydrogen through too few channels in the reactor.

NTR-SOLID/PBed: PARTICLE BED / NUCLEAR THERMAL ROCKET AKA fluidized-bed, dust-bed, or rotating-bed reactor. In the particle-bed reactor, the nuclear fuel is in the form of a particulate bed through which the working fluid is pumped. This permits operation at a higher temperature than the solid-core reactor by reducing the fuel strength requirements . The core of the reactor is rotated (approximately 3000 rpm) about its longitudinal axis such that the fuel bed is centrifuged against the inner surface of a cylindrical wall through which hydrogen gas is injected. This rotating bed reactor has the advantage that the radioactive particle core can be dumped at the end of an operational cycle and recharged prior to a subsequent burn, thus eliminating the need for decay heat removal, minimizing shielding requirements, and simplifying maintenance and refurbishment operations.

ORION: CONSUMABLE NUCLEAR THERMAL ROCKET AKA "old Boom-boom". The ultimate consumable nuclear rocket, based on the "firecracker under a tin can" principle. This concept has the spacecraft mounted with shock absorbers on an armored "pusher plate". A stream of small (5 to 15 kiloton) fission or fusion explosives are detonated under the plate to provide thrust. While you might find it difficult to believe that the spacecraft can survive this, you will admit that this will give lots of thrust to the spacecraft (or its fragments). On the plus side, a pusher plate that can protect the spacecraft from the near detonation of nuclear explosives will also provide dandy protection from any incoming weapons fire. On the minus side I can hear the environmentalists howling already. It will quite thoroughly devastate the lift-off site, and give all the crew bad backs and fallen arches. And they had better have extra-strength brassieres and athletic supporters. However, there is a recent report that suggests ways of minimizing the fallout from an ORION doing a ground lift-off (or a, wait for it, "blast-off" {rimshot}). Apparently if the launch pad is a large piece of armor plate with a coating of graphite there is very little fallout.

The sad little secret about Orion is that the mission it is best suited for is boosting heavy payloads into orbit. Which is exactly the mission that the enviromentalist and the nuclear test ban treaty will prevent. Orion has excellent thrust, which is what you need for lift-off and landing. Unfortunately its exhaust velocity is pretty average, which is what you need for efficient orbit-to-orbit maneuvers.

Having said that, there is another situation where high thrust is desirable: a warship [rocket3af.html#jink jinking] to make itself harder to be hit by enemy weapons fire. It is also interesting to note that the Orion propulsion system works very well with the [rocket3x.html#submunition bomb-pumped laser] weapons system.

Each pulse unit has a radiation case that channels the initial blast upward towards the pusher plate. Along the way it vaporizes a solid chunk of propellant and accelerates it to the plate. The device is basically a nuclear shaped charge. Each charge accelerates the spacecraft by roughly 12 m/s. A 4,000 ton spacecraft would use 5 kiloton charges, and a 10,000 ton spacecraft would use 15 kiloton charges. For blast-off, smaller charges of 0.15 kt and 0.35 kt respectively would be used while within the Terra's atmosphere. The air between the charge and the pusher plate amplifies the impulse delivered. The propellant is tungsten, the channel filler is beryllium oxide, and the radiation case is uranium. A 5 kiloton charge is about 850 kg.

So the x-rays and other radiation from the nuclear explosion are channeled by the x-ray opaque uranium up into the beryllium oxide channel filler. This absorbs the radiation, converting it into heat. The heat blasts upward, flashing the tungsten propellant into a jet of tungsten plasma. The jet hits the pusher plate, accelerating the spacecraft. The jet is confined to a cone about 22.5 degrees.

A pulse unit that was not a shaped charge would of course waste most of the energy of the explosion.

The following table is from a 1959 report on Orion, and is probably a bit optimistic. But it makes for interesting reading. For more in depth calculations of an Orion rocket's specific impulse, read [orionisp1.jpg page 1] and [orionisp2.jpg page 2]. But be prepared for some heavy math.

Δ_v 10 km/s = Terra surface to 480 km Terra orbit
Δ_v 15.5 km/s = Terra surface to soft Lunar landing
Δ_v 21 km/s = Terra surface to soft Lunar landing to 480 km Terra orbit
or Terra surface to Mars orbit to 480 km Terra orbit
Δ_v 30 km/s = Terra surface to Venus orbit to Mars orbit to 480 km Terra orbit
Δ_v 100 km/s = Terra surface to inner moon of Saturn to 480 km Terra orbit

In other words, if you can believe their figures, the advanced Orion could carry a payload of 1,300 tons (NOT kilograms) to Enceladus and back!

NASA has been quietly re-examining ORION, under the new name of "External Pulsed Plasma Propulsion". As George Dyson observed, the new name removes most references to "Nuclear", and all references to "Bombs."

A gentleman named Rhys Taylor recently made some 3D images and a short movie about a hypothetical Orion drive spacecraft (He is using the amazing free 3D rendering package called Blender). In order to avoid destroying the launch site, the spacecraft is boosted a few miles into the air by Space Shuttle style strap on solid rocket boosters.

Mr. Taylor's current project is to create images of an alternate history where American (I'm sorry: USAian) and Soviet Orion drive battleships fight around Callisto.

Photon: PHOTON DRIVE. The exhaust is not a stream of matter. Instead it is a beam of electromagnetic radiation, basically a large laser. The advantage is that it has the maximum possible exhaust velocity and thus the highest specific impulse. The disadvantage is the ludicrously high power requirements.

The momentum of a photon is p = E/c, where E is the energy of the photon. So the thrust delivered by a stream of photons is ∂p/∂t = ∂E/∂t/c . This boils down to:

F = P/c

P = F * c

where:
F = thrust in Newtons
P = power in joules
c = speed of light in a vacuum (3e8 m/s)

In other words, one lousy Newton of thrust takes three hundred freaking megawatts!!

Solar Moth: SOLAR THERMAL ROCKET. 175 meter diameter aluminum coated reflector concentrates solar radiation onto a window chamber hoop boiler, heating and expanding the propellant through a regeneratively-cooled hoop nozzle. The concentrating mirror is one half of a giant inflatable balloon, the other half is transparent. Propellant is hydrogen seeded with alkali metal. The advantage is that you have power as long as the sun shines. The disadvantage is it doesn't work well past the orbit of Mars and the exhaust velocity is pathetic. This might be carried on a spacecraft as an emergency propulsion system, since the engine mass is so miniscule.

THS Fusion Pulse: TRANSHUMAN SPACE FUSION PULSE. Fictional [#icfusion Inertial-Confinement Fusion drive] from the game GURPS: Transhuman Space. Like the [#vasimr VASIMR] it has "gears", one increases specific impulse (exhaust velocity) at the expense of thrust.

VASIMR: VARIABLE SPECIFIC IMPULSE MAGNETOPLASMA ROCKET. This is a plasma drive with the amusing ability to "shift gears." This means it can trade exhaust velocity for thrust and vice versa. Three "gears" are shown on the table. There are more details here and here.